<nettime> Reactivating the Social Body in Insurrectionary Times: A Dialogue with Franco "Bifo" Berardi

[elise t <elise.thorburn@gmail.com>]

HI all,

Please find included below a new interview with Franco "Bifo" Berardi that
covers a broad swathe of topics, including issues of education, debt,
crisis, and mediation in the contemporary historical conjuncture.

It is published in the most recent issue of Berkeley Planning Journal and
can also be linked to here: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7z74819g

Elise



Peer Reviewed Title:

Reactivating the Social Body in Insurrectionary Times: A Dialogue with
Franco 'Bifo' Berardi

Journal Issue:

Berkeley Planning Journal, 25(1)

Author:

Hugill, David, York University
Thorburn, Elise, University of Western Ontario

Publication Date:

2012

Publication Info:

Berkeley Planning Journal, Department of City and Regional Planning, UC
Berkeley

Permalink:

http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7z74819g

Author Bio:

David Hugill is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Geography at York
University.

Elise Thorburn is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Media Studies at the
University of Western Ontario.

Keywords:

Crisis, precariousness, Italian Autonomism, capitalism, revolution, Occupy
movement, Arab Spring, neoliberal, education, Universities, debt

Local Identifier:

ucb_crp_bpj_11813

Abstract:

The Italian theorist Franco “Bifo” Berardi has spent a lifetime
participating in revolutionary movements and thinking through their
complexities. He is best known in the English-speaking world for his
association with the Italian autonomist movement Operaismo (“workerism”)
and its prominent attempts to transform communist politics by resituating
the “needs, desires, and organizational autonomies” of workers at the
foundation of political praxis (Genosko and Thoburn 2011: 3). This text
assembles excerpts from three interviews we conducted with Berardi over the
course of the insurrectionary year 2011. Each of our conversations
coincided with notable developments in last year’s mobilizations and our
interviewee’s enthusiasm about those events is evident at certain points in
the transcript. Yet while Berardi is generally optimistic about the revolts
and the “reactivation of the social body” that they seem to imply, he
reminds us that protest alone will not be enough to win the genuine kinds
of autonomy that he suggests are necessary. He argues that dogmas of
growth, competition and rent have so colonized every sphere of “human
knowledge” that they have begun to threaten the very survival of what he
calls “social civilization.” The hegemonic grip of this “epistemological
dictatorship” has altered our capacity to feel empathy towards one another,
severing fundamental bonds of inter-personal connection. Yet in spite of
this dark diagnosis, Berardi is not a doomsayer and he always leaves open
the possibility of transformation and escape. He counsels that our best
shot at deliverance lies in the development of new strategies of
withdrawal, refusal, sabotage, and the negotiation of new “lines of flight”
from the late-capitalist forms of domination.


  210 Berkeley Planning Journal, Volume 25, 2012

Reactivating the Social Body in Insurrectionary Times: A Dialogue with
Franco ‘Bifo’ Berardi

By David Hugill and Elise Thorburn Abstract

The Italian theorist Franco “Bifo” Berardi has spent a lifetime
participating in revolutionary movements and thinking through their
complexities. He is best known in the English-speaking world for his
association with the Italian autonomist movement Operaismo (“workerism”)
and its prominent attempts to transform communist politics by resituating
the “needs, desires, and organizational autonomies” of workers at the
foundation of political praxis (Genosko and Thoburn 2011: 3). This text
assembles excerpts from three interviews we conducted with Berardi over the
course of the insurrectionary year 2011. Each of our conversations
coincided with notable developments in last year’s mobilizations and our
interviewee’s enthusiasm about those events is evident at certain points in
the transcript. Yet while Berardi is generally optimistic about the revolts
and the “reactivation of the social body” that they seem to imply, he
reminds us that protest alone will not be enough to win the genuine kinds
of autonomy that he suggests are necessary. He argues that dogmas of
growth, competition and rent have so colonized every sphere of “human
knowledge” that they have begun to threaten the very survival of what he
calls “social civilization.” The hegemonic grip of this “epistemological
dictatorship” has altered our capacity to feel empathy towards one another,
severing fundamental bonds of inter-personal connection. Yet in spite of
this dark diagnosis, Berardi is not a doomsayer and he always leaves open
the possibility of transformation and escape. He counsels that our best
shot at deliverance lies in the development of new strategies of
withdrawal, refusal, sabotage, and the negotiation of new “lines of flight”
from the late-capitalist forms of domination.

Keywords: crisis; precariousness; Italian autonomism; capitalism;
revolution; the occupy movement; the “Arab Spring”; neoliberal education;
universities; debt

Introduction

The Italian theorist Franco “Bifo” Berardi has spent a lifetime
participating in revolutionary movements and thinking through their
complexities. He

Reactivating the Social Body in Insurrectionary Times 211

is perhaps best known in the English-speaking world for his association
with the Italian Operaista (“workerist”) movement – known colloquially as
“Autonomism” or “Autonomist Marxism” - and its prominent attempts to
transform communist politics by re-centering the “needs, desires, and
organizational autonomies” of workers as the foundation of political praxis
(Genosko and Thoburn 2011). The Autonomist tradition is primarily concerned
with the autonomy of human subjects: it is a Marxism that insists on the
primacy of laborers as active agents. Thus where Western Marxisms have
tended to focus on the dominant logic of capital itself, Autonomists have
sought to affirm the power of workers first, understanding transformations
in the capitalist mode of production primarily as responses to class
struggle (Dyer-Witheford 2004); the political history of capital, in other
words, can be read as a “history of successive attempts of the capitalist
class to emancipate itself from the working class” (Tronti 1979 quoted in
Trott 2007). This inversion of the dialectical relationship between labor
and capital (sometimes called the “Copernican Turn”) is thus often
considered the hallmark of Autonomist theory (Moulier 1989).

What follows are excerpts of three interviews that we conducted with Bifo
over the course of the insurrectionary year 2011. Each of our conversations
coincided with notable developments in last year’s mobilizations and our
interviewee’s enthusiasm about those events is evident at certain points in
the transcript. Our first encounter was at an Edufactory meeting in Paris
at which a range of groups had come together to build a common front
against the neoliberalization of universities in Europe and around the
world. The conference was held just weeks after the ouster of Tunisian
President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali and the proceedings were routinely
interrupted by live updates from the ongoing revolution in Egypt. Indeed,
news of the emergent ‘Arab Spring’ coupled with the energy of attendees
from ongoing student mobilizations in Britain, Italy, Chile and elsewhere,
animated the conference with a palpable sense that a new cycle of struggle
was once again upon us. Our follow-up conversations with Bifo - both held
remotely - were animated by a similar backdrop of upheaval as that
revolutionary spring bled into an equally oppositional summer and then gave
to an occupied fall. Yet while our interviewee remains generally optimistic
about the events of 2011 and the “reactivation of the social body” that
they seem to imply, he is also quick to remind us that protest alone will
not be enough to win the genuine kinds of autonomy that he suggests are
vitally necessary. As we shall see, Bifo’s primary concern is with the ways
in which particular dogmas of growth, competition and rent have colonized
the spheres of “human knowledge.” He argues that the persistence of these
“mental cages” threatens the very survival of “social civilization” and
remains critical about the capacity of protest to interrupt their
pervasiveness. There are tactical implications to these observations and
Bifo - both in the text below and elsewhere - asks tough questions about

212 Berkeley Planning Journal, Volume 25, 2012

whether marches and occupations are effective strategies for targeting
contemporary arrangements of domination. Unlike the geographer Eric
Swyngedouw (2011), who insists that the seizure of urban space continues to
be at the heart of “emancipatory geo-political trajectories,” Bifo points
to the limits of too enthusiastic an embrace of space-based urban struggle.
His point is not to deny the importance of marches and occupations but to
suggest that a more formidable foe resides in the deterritorialized orbit of
software and algorithms, financial flows and behavioral automatisms. Indeed,
he argues that the hegemonic grip of this “epistemological dictatorship”
has altered our capacity to feel empathy towards one another, severing
fundamental bonds of inter-personal connection. As he puts it elsewhere:

We have lost the pleasure of being together. Thirty years of precariousness
and competition have destroyed social solidarity. Media virtualization
has destroyed
empathy among bodies, the pleasure of touching each other, and the pleasure
of living in urban spaces. We have lost the pleasure of love, because too
much time is devoted to work and virtual exchange (Berardi and Lovnik 2011).


Yet Bifo is not a doomsayer, in spite of this dark diagnosis, and he always
leaves open the possibility of transformation and escape. He counsels that
our best shot at deliverance lies in the development of new strategies
of withdrawal,
refusal, sabotage, and the negotiation of new “lines of flight” from
late-capitalist forms of domination. There are good reasons to be optimistic
as we reflect on the flourishing of this new “spring” of resistance but as
Mike Davis (2011: 5) warns us “spring is the shortest of seasons.” Bifo’s
observations are critical reminders that the hardest work will come as we
try to sustain, transform and hone the insurrectionary energies of 2011. We
hope this dialogue contributes to that process in some modest way.

Interview

Q: We’d like to begin by asking about the emphasis that you and others have
placed on the role of financial capitalism in undermining what you call
“social civilization.” You’ve suggested, among other things, that it is a
deterritorializing form of predation because its violence is primarily
conducted through a virtual circuitry. With this in mind, we’d like to ask
a tactical question: if the architecture of contemporary domination is less
and less linked to the control of physical spaces– if its more virtual and
algorithmic than material and locatable – then where can that domination be
meaningfully challenged?

A: In my view, imagination is the central field of social transformation in
the age of semiocapital. Capitalist domination is sustained by the
persistence

Reactivating the Social Body in Insurrectionary Times 213

of mental cages that are structured by the dogmas of growth, competition
and rent. The epistemological dictatorship of this model – its grip on the
different spheres of human knowledge – is the very ground of power. So the
task of transformation requires us to imagine and make sensible a different
concatenation of social forms, knowledge, and technology. Of course,
imagination will never be enough on its own. We need to build forms of
social solidarity that are capable of re-activating the social body after
the long period of its isolation and subjugation to competitive
aggressiveness. Solidarity – in contrast to this aggressiveness – is based
on empathy, on the bodily perception of the presence of the other.

This word, solidarity, is a crucial word in the language of our movements
but it needs to be better understood. What does solidarity mean, exactly?
In general, we use the word in an ethical or political sense but this does
not allow us to grasp its inner meaning. Solidarity, in my view, has to do
with psychic and emotional relationships between living bodies. When we see
that solidarity has broken down in our daily lives, the form that it takes
is usually not political. Rather, it is an experience of dis-conjunction, a
breaking down of empathetic bonds between living beings. The virtualization
of communication, the precarization of work, and a range of other
contemporary phenomena, have disconnected our capacity to feel empathy
towards each other. In my opinion, this is the main problem of our time.
Building and sustaining solidarity has to be much more than a political
project. It is about reactivating the sentience of the social body much
more than it is about political organization. Do you see what I mean?
Ultimately, what we have is a problem of therapy, which, in my parlance,
does not imply a process of re-connecting, or reducing language, behavior,
or feelings to established norms. For me, therapy implies a process of
re-activating empathy between living organisms. This empathy is the
foundation of the solidarity we need today.

Q: In your view, has the wave of revolts and occupations that have unfolded
over the past year or so, initiated this therapeutic process, this process
of reactivating interpersonal empathy in the face of particular forms of
domination?

A: I am still trying to understand what happened in 2011 but I do think the
uprisings can be seen as a challenge to the dis-empathetic pathologies that
are crossing the social skin and social soul and as the reactivation of the
social body. They can be seen, in other words, as therapy for a
psychopathology, as a process of healing.

For too long the dictatorship of financial capitalism has compressed the social
body and the cynicism of the ruling class has become increasingly repugnant
to many. This is why we should not be surprised that the uprisings have
sometimes taken the form of violent explosions and will continue to do so.
Of course, violence is itself a pathological demonstration

214 Berkeley Planning Journal, Volume 25, 2012

of impotence and there is little tactical justification for a violent
anti- capitalist
movement today. Nevertheless, we will continue to witness massive
explosions of precarious rage and violence, like the ones that were
unleashed in Tottenham, Peckham and elsewhere in the UK in August and in
Rome in October. Future uprisings will frequently give way to the
psychopathology of violence and this shouldn’t surprise us. Neither should
we condemn such acts as criminal. But in terms of the therapeutic meaning
of the uprisings in general, I don’t think it is simply a matter of
political negotiation, of struggle, denunciation and demonstration. Rather,
the main problem that is addressed by the uprisings – from Egypt to the
occupation movement but also the violent riots in London and many other
cities in Europe – is the reactivation of the link between human bodies,
which is also a reactivation of a relationship to the city, to land, to
territory.

Q: If imagination is the critical site of struggle, as you’ve suggested,
then has it become less important for oppositional groups to fight battles
in actual physical space? Has holding city squares or disturbing the
ordered functioning of various financial districts became on obsolete or
merely symbolic tactical approach or can it still be productively
disruptive?

A: I don’t think that we will be able to win a fight against financial
capitalism
by demonstrating in the street. Destroying banks isn’t useful if we are
seeking emancipation from financial dictatorship. Financial power does not
exist in the banks; it is embedded in software, in the techno- linguistic
automatisms that govern daily life and the psychic automatisms of
consumerism, competition and fear. Nevertheless we are in the midst of a
process – a movement – that will deploy itself over the course of the next
decade, maybe longer, and we have to start from where we are and what we
know. What we have today is the memory of past forms that our movements
have taken, including occupations, strikes and demonstrations, both
peaceful and violent. All of these are part of the legacy of 20th century
social movements. Recently, we have tried to resurrect some of these old
forms of struggle – these old forms of expression – but this hasn’t worked
particularly well. Established forms of peaceful demonstration have absolutely
no possibility of changing the politics of financial capitalism. They don’t
work when democracy is dead - and it is totally dead, the European
experience is demonstrating that clearly. But on the other hand, violent
riots or bank bombings are also useless because they don’t challenge the
sites of real power. Real power is in the cybersphere, in the algorithms of
financial control, in the quantitative analyses that undergird trading, and
so on.

We continue to use old forms of action but we will have to begin to imagine new
forms that are capable of actually struggling against financial
dictatorship. In my opinion, the first task – which we have begun to experience
over the last year – is the reactivation of the social body that I

Reactivating the Social Body in Insurrectionary Times 215

have already described. But as I have said, this will not be enough. We
will also have to begin to learn to create new forms of autonomy from
financial control and so on. For instance, in Italy we have been talking
increasingly of “insolvency.” Of course, insolvency means the inability to
pay a debt but we don’t think of it strictly in monetary terms. There is
also a symbolic debt that is always implied in power relationships. Imagination
might mean the ability to create the possibility of insolvency – to create
the right to be insolvent, the right not to pay a debt – at a semiotic and
a symbolic level. We need to imagine forms of social relationships that
escape monetary exchange or invent new forms of exchange, like time banks,
new forms of currency, community currency and so on. Do you see what I am
trying to say? The process of imagination begins with the reactivation of
the social body but next this body has to create new levels of social
interaction. Escaping financial dictatorship, in other words, means
imagining new forms of social exchange. I don’t know what form emancipation
will take in the coming years. I can only propose this little
methodological starting point from what we already know.

Q: We want to build on this discussion about the “reactivation of the
social body” by asking you a question about alliances and movement
building. It’s our view that the ways that we talk about questions of
“class” have been profoundly diminished in North American popular
discourses. The geographer Neil Smith recently suggested that it has gotten
so bad in the United States that there are now really only three classes
that are acknowledged in public debate: millionaires, homeless people and
the middle class (Hugill and Smith 2011: 88). In this context, we are
extremely interested in your commitment to understanding “precariousness”
as a central dimension of the contemporary. Do you see precariousness as a
category that can be meaningfully mobilized as a basis for coming together
and identifying with each other? In other words, do you think the idea of
precariousness itself is substantial enough to form the basis of a new
class politics?

A: Precariousness is not a marginal feature of contemporary labor
relations. It is the general character of work in the age of globalization.
We shouldn’t abandon class categories but they need to be redefined in
every sense. The working and capitalist classes have changed dramatically
since the dawn of industrial capitalism. The deterritorialization of
property and work is the general trend that has lead to widespread
precarization. The old bourgeoisie was a territorialized class, linked to
the physical property of factories, built environments and material assets.
They were intimately connected to particular territories and territorial
communities, which were the markets for what they produced. Today’s
predatory financial class has no territorial affinity, no interest in the
future of particular communities. The accumulation of capital is no longer
based on the physical properties or the growth of physical quantities of
goods but on the abstraction of digital and financial signs. Labor has been
similarly detached from territory and

216 Berkeley Planning Journal, Volume 25, 2012

community. Workers no longer meet in the physical space of the factory and
if they do it is usually provisional, temporary, precarious. This is why I
think that precariousness has become the general condition of labor in
addition to the general condition of social existence and self-perception.
At its core, precariousness means the fragmentation of the work force.
People no longer meet in the same place and social time has become
fragmented, fractalized. The recent wave of movements are a way to
re-connect some of these fragments that might otherwise have no way, no
time, no space to meet. This, essentially, is what an occupation is. I use
the language of reactivating the social body but one could also call it an
attempt to bring together that which has been broken apart by the
generalization of precariousness. I see the Occupy movement, for example,
as an attempt at recomposing the broken body of the precarious community.

Q: Elsewhere, you’ve spoken about how the generalization of precariousness
and crisis has made space for new alliances to be formed, including between
academic or university workers, so-called “cognitive” laborers, and other
kinds of workers. Would you expand on this on little?

A: I am interested in looking at this problem through questions of
subjective consciousness, the ways in which crisis has been perceived by
different social subjectivities. Over the last decade our consciousness of
the centrality of “cognitive labor” has been increasing. For example, in
just the last two years in Italy the university has become one of the
central foci of struggle. The situation is becoming so dramatic everywhere
that new forms of alliance and connection between the social crisis and the
problem of the university are being made and this is new. For example, in
Italy, in recent months, a new organization has been created called United
Against the Crisis – it is a meeting point for metalworkers and students
and researchers. In some sense, it is reminiscent of the 1960s or 1970s but
it is also absolutely new in other ways.

Q: How successful have these experiments in alliance building been?

A: Well, in January 2011 there was a general strike of the metalworkers all
over Italy and it was very successful. In my region around 90% of workers
were striking in their factories. And what was interesting was that the
squares were full not only of metal workers but also of students. Just
after that, in Porto Marghera (an important city for working class memory
because everybody associates it with autonomous workers movements of the
1960s and 1970s) the FIOM (Federazione Impiegati Operai Metallurgici), the
main union of metal workers, and the so-called disubbidientes, which is a
national organization of students and precarious workers, decided to hold a
common meeting that roughly 2000 people attended. It was the first time in
40 years that unionists and students met together to decide common actions
against the crisis. I want to stress the novelty of this. The

Reactivating the Social Body in Insurrectionary Times 217

government and leading classes had been saying for so long that nothing was
happening but now it has become completely evident that we have a massive
awakening of social cultures.

Q: There aren’t many precedents for these kinds of alliances between
students and university workers with other kinds of workers in contemporary
North American contexts. So, on this side of the ocean, we don’t have much
of a blueprint to begin building them today. Can you tell us how these
connections were forged and sustained?

A: In Italy there is a long legacy of students and workers “united in the
struggle.” In fact, this was one of the main slogans in the 1960s and
1970s. And it wasn’t just rhetoric either. It was really something deep. Of
course, this was thirty or forty years ago and in the meantime many things
have happened. But over the last five or six years, the precarization of
workers has created a new common ground between workers and students.
Students are precarious workers in most instances and factory workers know
that precariousness for students is also a problem for them, a blackmail to
be used against them. Additionally, the public discourse and the
consciousness of generalized precariousness has been growing dramatically
over the last few years and this has had a significant impact. I think that
the problem of precariousness is felt differently in Italy and Europe than
it is in North America. Precariousness is something that is inherent to
labor relations in North America. Of course, I can’t give suggestions to
North American activists but I think that working to understand the new
character, the new cruciality, that precariousness has taken on in the
present time is of critical importance. Once upon a time, precariousness
was a marginal space of labor in general but today it is fixed labor that
has become marginal. And so, we need to do things like change the
perception of what a student is. Most students are precarious workers,
first and foremost.

Q: Can you elaborate? In what sense is a student a precarious worker?

A: First of all because students are increasingly learning in small
parcels, small fragments, small fractals of knowledge, and they are
becoming more and more accustomed to think of their knowledge not as
knowledge but as intellectual availability to exploitation. In North
American forms of education this is already well established, it is nothing
new. It is new in much of Europe and it has begun to provoke some
reactions. But it is also a fact of a networked and globalized world. What
does precariousness mean today? What is the relationship between
precariousness and globalization? It means that you can buy a fragment of
labor in Bangkok, a fragment in Buenos Aires, and a fragment in Milan and
that these three fragments become the same product from the point of view
of capital. Knowledge is headed the same way. You no longer need – from the
point of view of capital – to know in the humanistic sense, the meaning,
the finality, the intimate

218 Berkeley Planning Journal, Volume 25, 2012

contradictions of knowledge, you just need to know how particular parcels
of knowledge can be made functional. There is something new and something
old in this. Herbert Marcuse’s (1964) One Dimensional Man already
identified this problem of the functionalization of knowledge but in his
time it was only a kind of prediction about how capitalism would be
transformed. Today, this functional consideration is the dominant form of
our relationship to knowledge. So, we should question people about what is
happening to our knowledge. Are we really learning things, knowing things?
Or are we simply learning how to become part of the productive machine?
Additionally, I think we need to ask people, especially young people, about
their suffering in the relationship with knowledge, with communication and
so on. I think that the problem of psychic suffering is of central
importance our time. Problems of depression, panic, massive suicide, are
very real. Do you know that suicide has become the main cause of death
among people between 18-25 years old? Suicide is becoming a political
weapon. I’m not only thinking of Columbine or of Mohamed Bouazizi, the man
who killed himself and started the Tunisian revolution. Suicide has
something to do with knowledge. When your knowledge is becoming more and
more something that does not belong to you, this is a problem of personal
identity, of psychic identity.

Q: Do you see a relationship between this psychic suffering and the
virtualization of communication that has been associated with new kinds of
technology?

A: This is a tricky and difficult question to answer because I see a
profound danger in reactionary technophobia. I am absolutely not a
technophobe but I do want to question the ambiguity of new technologies. It
is evident that new technological forms are in some sense tools of
empowerment for social movements – we see what has happened in Egypt and
Tunisia, for example. This is clear enough but it is only part of the
question. The other part concerns the relationship between bodily
perception of society, affective perception of society, and work.
Thirty-five years ago I read a book called The Show and Tell Machine, by an
American anthropologist called Rose Goldsen. I read this book in 1978 or
1979 but I was so struck by one sentence that I can still repeat it, “we
are breeding the first generation that will learn more words from a machine
than from mothers.” I remember that Freud said that the main place of
affective creation – of the creation of personal affection – is language
and the relationship between language learning and bodily affection. The
dark side of new technology is this distance from the body of the mother,
and by the “body of the mother” I mean the body in general, the ability to
perceive oneself linguistically in relationship to the body. This is being
lost. You know, psychiatrists say that twenty years ago the word panic
meant nothing, but today panic is a new symptomology. Today, it effects 15%
of the young people, especially women. And this is absolutely new. So why
is this happening? It is because panic is a problem

Reactivating the Social Body in Insurrectionary Times 219

of the relationship between the body and information, the acceleration of
information in conditions of competitiveness. This is pathogenic. There are
new forms of pathology that are emerging from the acceleration of the
technological rhythm of information and the separation of the body from the
social process. Our social processes are less and less bodily processes and
more and more informational processes. I like the Internet very much and
particularly the possibilities that it creates. I don’t want to renounce it
but I see that the new technologies have this dark side but I don’t have a
solution. There are key problems here in terms of subjectivation, political
understanding and so on, and we should work on this ambiguity, this double
bind. I think we need to be cautious about the triumphalism that associates
new technologies with democratic possibilities etcetera. Yes there are
these possibilities but new technology does not mean only that.

Q: Do you invest any hope in the capacity of new technologies -
particularly virtual communication technologies – to accomplish the
reactivation of the social that you mentioned at the outset of this
interview?

A: Of course I do. I am not a reactionary, nor am I a nostalgic person who
wants to go back to a time of low-tech communication. The technological
struggle is part of a living body of society but the problem is that during
the last twenty years new technologies have also cancelled or obscured the
possibility of a bodily relationship between social beings. In one sense,
social networking and social media technologies have been useful in calling
bodies to the street but this dynamic of virtual embodiment has to be
reactivated from the point of view of the body, of eroticism, of social
relationships. I don’t want to suggest that we should forget about new
technology, but rather that we have to inscribe these technologies within a
new bodily relationship to each other in physical space, not only in
virtual space.

David Hugill is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Geography at York
University.

Elise Thorburn is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Media Studies at the
University of Western Ontario.

220 Berkeley Planning Journal, Volume 25, 2012 References

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